On their voyage to the Antarctic continent in 1914, Shackleton and his crew of scientists and seamen were unexpectedly beset by a wall of solid pack ice. As one crew member wrote, "We were stuck like an almond in a chocolate bar." Repeated heroic attempts over many months failed to free the ship. Finally, the pressure of the shifting, roiling ice exacted its toll, and the ship slipped beneath the ice. With no ship and no means of contact with anyone else on earth, Shackleton charted their unlikely escape.

With a fierce winter fast approaching, the members of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of Great Britain had failed to achieve their original goal--the first overland crossing of the Antarctic continent. The mission had now shifted to survival in one of the planet's harshest locations. In pursuing this objective Shackleton mobilized his crew to accomplish a series of near-superhuman tasks. These included two attempts to reach open water by man-hauling the ship's three life boats over the ice on crude sledges, and a perilous five and a half day journey to the temporary safety of a wind-buffeted, barren rock known as Elephant Island.

Realizing that rescue from Elephant Island was unlikely, Shackleton and a small, select crew set out on an 800-mile journey through the Southern Ocean which bordered the Drake Passage—one of the most treacherous stretches of water in the world--and finally, miraculously, after 16 days of gripping adventure, reached South Georgia Island. After a daring climb over the glaciers of the Island, Shackleton reached the whaling station 603 days after their original date of departure. From there, he led the effort to rescue his shipmates who had remained on Elephant Island. All 28 of the men who started out with the expedition survived the ordeal.

We have studied numerous accounts of individuals and teams who have been at “The Edge” and have found that there are many parallels and lessons that can be applied to the challenges organizations are facing today. Adversity was the everyday reality for Shackleton and his crew, who struggled to survive against seemingly insurmountable obstacles.

What was it that enabled Shackleton and his men to succeed where others could have easily perished? We have found that the strategies he adopted were crucial to his triumph over adversity and his approach enabled the group to thrive under extremely difficult conditions.

Our research on groups that have faced the limits of survival suggest that there is a set of common factors that underlie success. We believe that the strategies which have enabled groups to prevail when stretched to the limits of physical endurance are equally effective for individuals and teams facing less extreme conditions. In essence, these ten strategies provide a model of leadership and teamwork not only for organizations facing adversity, but also for those who wish to reach the edge of individual and organizational performance.

Shackleton concentrated on the ultimate goal of survival while channeling inevitable anxiety in other directions. Activities included physical conditioning through dog sled racing, hunting seals for food, and moving the expedition toward intermediate objectives such as Elephant Island. When the expedition could do nothing but wait patiently, Shackleton's ability to simultaneously focus on the goal of survival and to find outlets for anxiety through short-term activities was central to their ultimate success.

Shackleton understood the power of communicating through behavior and symbols. To emphasize the importance of traveling light, he threw a handful of gold sovereigns into the snow, along with a gold cigarette lighter. He then tore a single page from the Bible given to him by the Queen, and placed the rest of the book on the snow next to the gold. These gestures inspired members of the expedition and dramatized what needed to be done to survive. Shackleton's behavior stands in sharp contrast to leaders who underestimate the extent to which they are watched by their employees, or those who send inconsistent messages--such as insisting on maintaining extravagant personal office space while demanding that others cuts costs.

One of Shackleton's greatest strengths was his ability to build an indomitable sense of self-confidence in his men--they came to believe that they could overcome any obstacle. Accounts of the expedition also reveal the flip-side of this ability: the weakness that emerges when unrealistic optimism blinds a leader to harsh reality. Although the food supply was dwindling, Shackleton opposed hunting more seals for fear it would symbolize a delay in their escape. He saw those who argued for the hunt as disloyal, and ignored their counsel. Finding the right balance between optimism and realism is a key leadership task in any situation, but particularly so under adversity.

Physical and emotional adversity can make significant demands on each member of the organization, and especially on those in positions of leadership. To withstand these stresses, conscious attention must be given to the tasks that promote and sustain personal vitality. Shackleton was amazingly successful in maintaining his energy and spirit. At points, however, he brooded over his responsibility for having gotten the expedition into what appeared to be an impossible situation, and for the failed attempts to march over the ice to open water. This brooding drained his energy and diminished his effectiveness. Leaders need to recognize that adverse situations involve complex decisions made under conditions of stress and uncertainty. In these circumstances, it is inevitable that mistakes will be made. Effective leaders must avoid blaming themselves and others, learn from errors, and conserve their energy so that they are prepared for the next challenge.

Shackleton understood the power of a cohesive group, and he was convinced that their greatest chance of survival rested on staying together. As a team, each person's contribution was unique, ranging from physical strength to expertise in navigation. On the open boat journey to the interim refuge of Elephant Island, Shackleton endeavored to maintain contact between the three boats, and was eventually able to assemble the party at a single point. Even during the most difficult circumstances, when it was clear that some were doing more than others to aid progress of the expedition, Shackleton continued to maintain a sense of unity and team cohesion.

Shackleton went out of his way to ensure that he was given the same treatment as the others, even to the point of performing menial chores. In one case, he went so far as to berate the cook for giving him preferential treatment. Shackleton was called "the Boss" by team members, a term that communicated both their affection and respect. But he was never physically aloof, and never used his position to avoid sharing the hardships of the journey. In a sense, the expedition became a "classless society," and an unusual degree of mutual respect and caring emerged as a result. At one point, on the verge of starvation, one of the men spilled his meager ration of milk into the snow. Tears in his eyes, he watched the milk disappear into the icy whiteness. Without a word, each of his tent mates poured a part of their own rations into their comrade's mug. This action reflected the extent to which the expedition members had accepted their need of and responsibility to every man on the team.

Although there were many minor frictions in the group, these arguments were never destructive. In fact, this "productive bickering" helped ensure that tensions never built to the point that serious disagreements ensued. Shackleton was also a master at warding off any damage to group morale that might be caused by malcontents. Shackleton deliberately assigned one "troublemaker" to his own tent so that he might listen to his complaints and boost his ego. Although it is tempting to keep problem individuals at a distance, the strategy of embracing dissidents is the course to take under conditions of adversity. Shackleton was also successful in avoiding power struggles. On the second sled march, for example, the oldest member of the expedition mutinied, refusing to go on. He argued that he had agreed to follow orders "on board," but since Endurance had sunk he was under no further legal obligation. Rather than engaging in a fruitless debate, Shackleton allowed the carpenter to choose between working with team members--and accepting Shackleton's authority--or working alone. As the rest of the expedition marched onward through the snow, the "one-man mutiny" quickly ended.

Shackleton understood that strong morale doesn't happen accidentally. He encouraged a wide range of humorous and lighthearted activities. At the same time he cast his gold into the snow. Shackleton ordered one expedition member to take along his zither banjo to provide music for the team, even though it weighed 12 lbs. On the one year anniversary of their departure from South Georgia Island, knowing that this would be a day of depression since they were still stranded on the ice, he ordered a day long celebration. On mid-winter’s day, halfway through the two-month period of constant darkness, Shackleton threw a party for the crew. These activities reflected Shackleton's conscience efforts to use humor and celebration to lighten anxiety and maintain morale under extremely challenging conditions.

In the final chapter of this remarkable expedition. Shackleton and two others found themselves stranded on a South Georgia glacier, 4,500 feet above sea level. Night was falling, fog was rolling in, and--at their current rate of descent--they were certain to freeze to death. The three men created a makeshift toboggan from their 50 feet of rope, held onto each other and slid some 2,000 feet into the darkness. This risk-laden move paid off. After a harrowing slide, they arrived safely at the bottom. Conditions of adversity pose situations in which leaders must decide whether to persist in their current strategy or do something perhaps radically different. These judgements are never easy, but a willingness to take The Big Risk is the hallmark of a successful leader.

At each point in the journey the team could have perished. The obstacles they faced--solid pack ice, grueling sledge journeys, seal leopard attacks, Drake's Passage, and, finally, the glaciers of South Georgia Island--could have been insurmountable. But with each adversity, Shackleton and his team mobilized their creativity and courage in the belief that a solution could be found. The qualities of hope and creativity that enable Shackleton and the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition to survive are essential ingredients in any successful attempt to overcome adversity. Courage provides the energy to search for solutions, and creativity makes it possible to see answers when none seem to exist.

Leading at The Edge: Leadership Lessons from the Extraordinary Saga of Shackleton’s Antarctic Adventure, AMACOM 2000

Dennis N.T. Perkins (president), Paul R. Kessler (managing director) and Catherine McCarthy (senior consultant) work together at The Syncretics Group, a consultancy that works with organizations, teams and individuals to increase performance at “The Edge”. Margaret P. Holtman is vice president of talent management at The Harford, and speaks with leading organizations around leadership and change.

For more lessons in leadership, visit Syncretics Group Inc.